Table 3 Portrayal of the non-medical use of methylphenidate in print media, bioethics and public health supported by examples of article headlines as well as the occurrence of reported risks and benefits indicated in parentheses (n).

“Lifestyle choice”: “better living through chemistry” [39]; “short cut in learning”; “new kind of drug abuse” [18].

"Students taking danger drug to help with exams"; " 'Smart pills' are on the rise. But is taking them wise?"; "New campus high: Illicit prescription drugs".

Physiological addiction (8); palpitations (7); psychological addiction (6); heart attack (5); unspecified cardiac risks (4); loss of appetite (4); hallucinations (4); stroke (2); tremors (2); increase in blood pressure (2); weight loss (2); vomiting (2); dizziness (2); seizures (2); withdrawal symptoms (2); require increasing amounts of drug (1); cardiac arrhythmia (1); overdose (1); changes in brain cell chemistry (1); fatigue (1); death (1); dry mouth (1).

Boost concentration (8); increase focus (7); increase energy (3); increase alertness (1); reduce appetite (1); eliminate jitters (1); filter out distractions (1); increase motivation (1); accumulate more information in less time (1); increase confidence (1); increase organization (1); increase retention of information (1); think more rationally (1); general feeling of well-being (1); make you feel smarter (1); make mundane tasks seem fun (1); enhance studying (1); do work faster (1); maintain high performance level (1); boost brain activity (1).

"Cognitive enhancement": " 'neuroenhancement' (...) This term includes the use of drugs and other interventions to modify brain processes with the aim of enhancing memory, mood and attention in people who are not impaired by illness or disorder"[40].

"Neurocognitive enhancement: what can we do and what should we do?" and "Cosmetic neurology: The controversy over enhancing movement, mentation, and mood".

Addiction (3); toxicity (1).

Improve attention (4); improve memory (4); improve performance (2); increase focus (1); improve concentration (1); improve planning (1); think faster (1); stabilize mood (1); promote creativity (1).

"Abuse", "misuse", "illicit drug use": "Ritalin (Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corp., East Hanover, NJ) has received the most attention in medical literature, little information is available regarding which specific stimulants are used illicitly by college students" [41].

"Student perceptions of methylphenidate abuse at a public liberal arts college" and "Stimulant medication use, misuse, and abuse in an undergraduate and graduate student sample".

Addiction (2); cardiovascular implications (1); withdrawal symptoms (1); increase in blood pressure (1); headache (1); overdose (1); blocking veins if injected/snorted (1); panic episodes (1); aggressive behavior (1); suicidal or homicidal tendencies (1).

Decreases fatigue (2); increases energy (1); increases dopaminergic activity (1); maintain high performance level (1); increase alertness (1).